Freud’s 1895 Project

Freud's Intellectual Itinerary

Freud's early intellectual development was shaped by a diverse mix of world literature, Aristotelian philosophy, and rigorous neuroscientific training.
His transition from neurology to psychoanalysis was catalyzed by his collaboration with Josef Breuer and his studies on hysteria under Charcot in Paris.
The 1895 'Project for a Scientific Psychology' represents a significant historical detour where Freud attempted to reconcile the mechanics of the brain with the functions of the mind.
The text identifies a fundamental tension between materialist 'peripherist' models of the brain and 'centrist' conceptions of the person as an integrated whole.
Freud's work reflects a recurring philosophical struggle between viewing the individual as a collection of psychophysical states versus a singular, volitional soul or ego.

In the Project Freud returned to the brain, thus making a temporary detour from mind to brain, an historical example of recurrent problems in mind–body philosophies.

Freud's Philosophical Conflict

Freud's early work reflects a tension between centrism, which focuses on the person, and peripherism, which reduces behavior to psychophysical states.
The nineteenth-century biological revolution in psychiatry sought to depersonalize the individual by reducing intelligence to molecular motion and reflex mechanisms.
Despite his training as a neuropathologist, Freud was fundamentally a philosopher of mind whose true passion shaped psychoanalysis into a unique personalist psychology.
Freud maintained a lifelong commitment to his sexual instinctual drive theories, even as he acknowledged that such theories could border on mythology.
The text distinguishes between method, which is grounded in experience, and theory, which can become a reductionist 'fetish' when overgeneralized.

The old theological belief in the immortal soul, or mankind’s pride in its higher intellectual and spiritual capacities, both housed in the cerebrum of Homo erectus, were now relegated to the dustbin of discarded doctrines.

Method Versus Mythology

The author distinguishes between scientific method, which observes real phenomena, and mythology, which elevates specific theories into universal explanatory principles.
Freudian pansexualism is presented as a 'sex mythology' because it attempts to use a single instinct as a key to all human neuroses and behaviors.
The brain-mind juncture remains a 'sealed mystery,' suggesting that while the brain is a necessary organ for the mind, the mind cannot be reduced to physiological functions.
Reducing psychology to brain physiology is described as 'brain mythology,' falsely positioning the brain as the sole cause of behavior rather than one link in a complex chain.
The quest to localize the 'seat of the soul' in the brain is a two-millennia-old pursuit that satisfies a human need for origin stories rather than scientific fact.

Thus, any attempt to reduce psychology to brain physiology will forever remain a brain mythology.

The Myth of Brain Psychiatry

The text challenges the 'brain mythology' that views mental diseases solely as physical brain diseases, a concept that dates back two millennia.
Freud broke with the anatomical traditions of his teachers, such as Meynert and Griesinger, by adopting a holistic and functionalist approach to psychology.
The shift toward a psychological conceptualization of neurosis allowed Freud to treat functional complaints through hypnotic suggestion and psychotherapy.
Breuer and Freud argued that using neurological terms like 'cortical excitations' to describe mental experiences was merely a 'pointless disguise' for psychological reality.
Freud's methodology in 'Studies on Hysteria' drew inspiration from imaginative writers to gain insight into the course of mental processes.

The substitution of one term for another would seem to be no more than a pointless disguise.

Breuer and the Ideogenic Affect

Breuer struggled to reconcile psychological experiences with the physiological postulate of cortical excitations, a tension that persists in modern neuroimaging.
While technology can now visualize metabolic brain events, mental events still require verbal communication between conscious individuals to be understood.
The text critiques Breuer's initial resistance to the idea that all hysterical symptoms are ideogenic, noting his confusion over the physiological components of somatic signs.
Breuer eventually focused on ideogenic affects, which are triggered by perceptions or ideas and resolved through motor discharge to restore mental equilibrium.
The author argues that hysterical symptoms, regardless of their physiological correlates, should be viewed as psychological modes of communication to an audience.

But we still have no machinery that can record mental events: those still must be verbalized by a conscious person to another conscious person.

From Affects to Energy

Breuer and Freud conceptualized acute affects as increases in excitation that require leveling out through motor discharge or abreaction.
Freud's early theory of defense neuroses involved robbing incompatible ideas of their 'sum of excitation' to resolve conflicts between the ego and sexual ideas.
The detachment of affect from ideas manifests in three distinct mechanisms: conversion hysteria, displacement into obsessions, and exchange into anxiety.
James Strachey's renaming of Freud's 'Project' to include the word 'Scientific' reflects a historical bias toward prioritizing Freud's materialistic neurological discourse over his psychological insights.

Strachey’s renaming harbors a hidden bias: to promote Freud the scientist over Freud the philosopher, to represent Freud’s materialistic discourse about mind as more valid than Freud’s psychological discourse about mind.

Freud's Materialistic Ambition

James Strachey's title 'Project for a Scientific Psychology' reflects a bias toward framing Freud as a scientist rather than a philosopher.
Freud's attempt to synthesize neurology and psychology was largely motivated by a desire to impress his skeptical friend Wilhelm Fliess.
The 'Project' was structured to deduce psychic events from basic hypotheses, pathological analysis, and the study of normal mental passages.
Freud adopted a mechanistic, atomistic view of the mind during this period, which stood in stark contrast to his earlier philosophical influences like Kant.
Despite his intense preoccupation with 'Psychology for Neurologists,' Freud struggled with the difficulty of introducing quantitative economics into mental theory.

My tyrant is psychology; it has always been my distant, beckoning goal, and now, since I have hit on the neuroses, it has come much closer.

Freud's Scientific Torture

Freud initially aimed to create a 'natural science' psychology by representing mental processes as quantitative states of material particles or neurons.
The development of his 'Project for a Scientific Psychology' was marked by extreme emotional volatility, ranging from pride and happiness to shame and misery.
Despite his mechanistic ambitions, Freud eventually abandoned the Project, labeling it an absurdity and a 'philosophical stammer.'
A suppressed letter reveals Freud's secret hope to bypass medicine and physiology to reach his ultimate original goal: philosophy.

I had to rework a number of drafts and alternated between pride and happiness and shame and misery, and at the end of enormous mental torture I tell myself with apathy: it does not work, maybe it will never come together.

Freud's Neuronal Brain Mythology

Freud attempted to ground psychology in natural science by defining mental activity as a quantity of energy (Q) moving through material particles called neurones.
Critics argue that Freud's model was speculative and ignored established 19th-century discoveries regarding the electrical and chemical nature of neuronal transmission.
The text suggests Freud confused the quantitative with the empirical, falsely implying that only measurable physical quantities qualify as scientific data.
Freud's 'principle of neuronal inertia' posits that neurons naturally seek to divest themselves of energy, a concept derived from clinical observations of hysteria.
The enterprise is ultimately labeled as 'brain mythology' for anthropomorphizing physiological structures with psychological processes to explain mental phenomena.

But transforming gross quantitative characteristics of pathological excitement, a commonsense observation, into neuronal excitations, or psychopathology into putative physiology, is nothing more than another method of brain mythology.

Freud's Hydraulic Brain Mythology

The author critiques Freud's attempt to transform psychological observations into physiological ones as a form of 'brain mythology' that anthropomorphizes neural structures.
Freud's concept of 'Quantity Q' represents a hydraulic hypothesis where neurons act like pipes filling with or emptying of fluid-like energy.
Scientific evidence regarding the histological, electrical, and chemical functioning of nerve cells does not support the idea of neurons divesting themselves of energy in this manner.
The energy metaphor was particularly applied to 'actual neuroses' like anxiety, which Freud viewed as a purely physical accumulation of somatic sexual excitation.
While the hydraulic model lacks physiological proof, it serves as a powerful metaphor for the 'strangulated affect' and cathartic discharge observed in clinical practice.

Such a hydraulic hypothesis is supported neither by the histological structure of nerve cells and fibers, nor by their electrical or chemical functioning as resting, action, or injury potentials.

Freud's Hydraulic Libido Model

Freud conceptualized sexual tension as a physical pressure on nerve endings that must reach a specific threshold before being perceived by the cerebral cortex.
The 'hydraulic metaphor' describes the psyche as a system that fills with libidinal energy (cathexis) and requires a specific action to achieve discharge or unloading.
Anxiety neurosis is framed as a physical consequence of unsatisfied sexual hunger, resulting in a state of unpleasant tension and functional disorders.
The hypothesis of neuronal inertia suggests the nervous system seeks to remain free of stimuli, yet is forced to abandon this trend to address internal biological needs like hunger and sex.
While the theory of energy flow and discharge is described as 'breathtakingly grand,' it is ultimately categorized as metaphysical rather than clinical.

The state of being loaded is also called by Freud besetzt, better known by the Greek neologism invented by Strachey, cathected, from cathexis, meaning 'occupation' or 'filling'.

Freud's Speculative Neuronal Systems

The text critiques Freud's 'Project' as a metaphysical rather than clinical endeavor, characterized by grand generalizations about nervous system inertia.
Freud proposed a speculative neuroanatomy involving the Phi, Psi, and Omega systems to distinguish between transient sensation and the retention of thought.
While Freud attempted to map these systems onto the gray matter of the spinal cord and brain, the author argues this was more 'pious talk' than empirical testing.
Freud's physiological psychology blended traditional neurophysiology of his era with his own highly speculative theories on 'contact-barriers' and 'facilitating pathways'.
The acquisition of experience is described through the reflex arc, where excitation-conducting paths are formed between cortical elements to create the material substrate of memory.

The rest is pious talk, for there is no testing here but only theorizing: Freud’s neuronal theories—a psychology for neurologists.

Freud's Speculative Neuropsychology

Freud attempted to bridge psychology and natural science by proposing a mechanistic model of neurons to explain mental processes.
He hypothesized a distinction between permeable 'phi' neurons for perception and impermeable 'psi' neurons for permanent memory storage.
The text notes that Freud's physiological models were largely fictitious and lacked histological evidence even by the standards of his own time.
Freud struggled with the 'problem of quality,' acknowledging that consciousness remains unaware of the underlying neural quantities and structures.
The author argues that Freud's attempt to create a mechanistic construction ultimately detracted from his more valuable dynamic psychological ideas.

This is indeed solid fact—we are not conscious of our brain as such, only of our mind in action—and therefore the brain–mind juncture is the mother of all questions.

The Brain-Mind Juncture

Freud grapples with the fundamental disconnect between the physical brain—composed of neurons and quantities—and the subjective experience of consciousness.
The text highlights how neuroscience often reverts to the language of philosophy and Gestalt psychology to explain how the mind actively creates a holistic reality.
Freud rejects the idea that qualities like color or scent exist in the external world, viewing them instead as internal constructs of the nervous system.
To solve the problem of how perception differs from memory, Freud proposes a third system of 'omega' neurons specifically dedicated to conscious sensation.
The author critiques Freud's theoretical leap, questioning how such specific neuronal functions could ever be verified or known.

This is indeed solid fact—we are not conscious of our brain as such, only of our mind in action—and therefore the brain–mind juncture is the mother of all questions that has vexed philosophers down the ages.

Freud's Grand Neuronal Fantasia

Freud attempts to categorize mental functions into specific neuronal systems labeled Phi, Psi, and Omega, but struggles to explain how physical quantity becomes conscious quality.
The Omega neurons are described as a sieve that allows for conscious sensation without leaving durable traces, a theory the author argues is contradicted by our ability to remember sensory experiences.
The text highlights a fundamental failure in Freud's mechanistic approach, as he admits he cannot explain how excitatory processes actually generate consciousness.
By reducing the 'I' or 'Ego' to a complex organization of cathexes and smart particles, Freud loses sight of the unified person or 'fellow human-being' behind the functions.
The author concludes that Freud's speculative physiology is a 'neuronal fantasia' that ultimately leads to a dead end by trying to explain mind through brain rather than mind through mind.

Clearly, in this plethora of parts, sight has been lost of the person, the “ fellow human-being ”, the one doing the perceiving, thinking and remembering, dreaming and hallucinating, wishing and willing, let alone attending and judging, the conductor of this orchestra of these all-knowing homunculi.

Freud's Grand Neuronal Fantasia

The author critiques Freud's attempt to explain the mind through speculative brain physiology, labeling it a 'grand neuronal fantasia' that belongs in a museum.
Freud's neurological theories were heavily influenced by the Helmholtz school of neurophysiology and the work of Ernst Brücke and Sigmund Exner.
The spinal reflex arc served as a foundational model for Freud, leading to a view of the brain as a 'superior ganglion' performing mechanical mental reflexes.
The text describes how traditional associationism and Meynert's theories of projection and association fibers provided the neural basis for Freud's concepts of intelligence and memory.
Meynert's schema of the plastic cortex included 'instincts' as fundamental forces, such as the sucking instinct in infants, which Freud later integrated into his own work.

His speculative physiology of the nervous system could fairly be dubbed, borrowing a felicitous phrase from Eccles (1994), Freud’s grand neuronal fantasia: we can consign it to the museum of metabiology.

Neurological Roots of Psychoanalysis

Theodor Meynert proposed that cortical interconnections, or induction, form the basis of intelligence and the development of the primary ego from childhood instincts.
Sigmund Exner conceptualized neural transmission as a fluid-like flow or a summation of stimuli, ideas that Freud later adapted into his concept of cathexis.
Exner introduced the hypothesis of subcortical emotion centers, specifically identifying a pain or unpleasure center that integrates with sensory memory.
The text illustrates how Freud synthesized the theories of Brücke, Meynert, and Exner to explain the movement of neural excitation and the drive toward wish-fulfillment.
Early neurological models even attempted to explain the genesis of romantic love through the 'tonus' of sexual instinct centers and cortical excitation.

Exner was much concerned with transmission of nervous impulses “from one periphery to another much as a fluid moves through a system of pipes”

The Experience of Satisfaction

Freud adapted the concept of the 'experience of satisfaction' from Meynert and Griesinger to explain the drive toward wish-fulfillment in dreams and neuroses.
The human organism seeks to convert unpleasure into pleasure through the discharge of stimulation, a process Freud initially modeled on neuronal inertia.
A hungry infant may attempt a 'pseudo-solution' through hallucinatory wish-fulfillment, but this inevitably fails to provide actual nourishment.
The infant's helplessness necessitates 'extraneous help,' transforming motor discharge like screaming into a secondary function of communication.
Freud argues that this primal state of human helplessness and the need for a dyadic relationship is the ultimate source of all moral motives.

The initial helplessness of human beings is the primal source of all moral motives.

Primary Process and Reality Testing

Freud defines the 'experience of satisfaction' through an economic model where pleasure is the sensation of energy discharge and unpleasure is tension.
Primary process is characterized by an uninhibited flow of energy that can lead to wishful cathexis and hallucination.
The ego manages secondary processes by inhibiting primary energies and employing 'indications of reality' to distinguish between perceptions and memories.
The author critiques Freud's early doctrines for overemphasizing physiology and energy over the psychological meanings of love, aggression, and interpersonal dynamics.
The transition from neurological speculation to psychoanalytic psychology is marked by the study of hysteria and the compulsion of intense ideas.

But primary process is also . . . wishful cathexis to the point of hallucination.

The Dynamics of Hysteria

Freud transitions from neurological science to psychoanalytic psychology by examining the 'excessively intense ideas' that drive hysterical patients.
Hysterical symptoms are distinguished from normal thoughts by being unintelligible, resistant to logic, and incongruous in their structure.
The mechanism of displacement allows an incidental idea (A) to act as a substitute or symbol for a repressed, emotionally charged idea (B).
Freud concludes that every psychological compulsion is linked to a corresponding repression, establishing a direct relationship between intrusion and amnesia.
The structure of a hysterical symptom is homologous to a dream, possessing both a manifest content and a hidden latent content.

The subject does not know why he weeps at A; he regards it as absurd and cannot prevent it.

The Symptom as Dream

Freud established a structural homology between symptoms and dreams, arguing that both possess a manifest content and a latent, encoded meaning.
The process of analysis acts as a mirror image to the formation of symptoms, using free association to decode repressed ideational links.
A significant shift occurred in Freud's theory from viewing primary processes as mere energy displacement to seeing them as the transposition of meaning and qualia.
The concept of the primary process evolved to encompass the mythopoetic imagination, linking clinical symptoms to the creative works of poets and writers.
Symptoms are defined as complex fusions of emotion, perception, and memory that function as metaphors for traumatic events.

The crucial juxtaposition here is between energetics vs. exegetics, physiological energy vs. psychological expression, displacement of quanta of energy vs. displacement of qualia of meaning.

Primary Process and Hysterical Repression

Freud defines the primary process as a productive mental capability that fuels dreams, hallucinations, and the mythopoetic imagination through the energies of pleasure and pain.
The secondary process acts as an inhibitory function associated with reality testing, logic, and the regulation of homeostasis through defense.
Hysterical repression is distinguished from normal repression by the intensity of defensive affect and the specific repression of distressing sexual emotions.
The concept of deferred action explains how childhood memories only become traumatic once the individual reaches sexual maturity and can understand their original meaning.
Freud suggests that every adolescent carries the 'germ of hysteria' because memory-traces of childhood are inevitably reinterpreted through the emergence of adult sexual feelings.

It has permitted a primary process because it did not expect one.

Freud's Intellectual Odyssey

Freud explores how the ego fails to defend against memories that unexpectedly release unpleasure, leading to repression and symptom formation.
The text argues that there is no contradiction between the trauma of childhood seduction and the innate development of sexual fantasy.
Freud's Project transitions from analyzing pathological symptoms to understanding universal human processes like dreams and speech associations.
The author asserts that Freud's work should be viewed as a coherent whole, bridging the gap between neurology and dynamic psychology.
A shift toward Darwinian biological justifications is noted as a departure from Freud's earlier philosophical and psychological roots.

It has permitted a primary process because it did not expect one.

Freud's Intellectual Odyssey

Freud’s work represents a continuous intellectual journey where early and late contributions form a coherent whole rather than being split into preanalytic and analytic phases.
A critical distinction must be made between Freud’s enduring psychoanalytic method and 'Freudism,' which consists of specific theories or myths that may become outdated.
The 'Project' contains significant 'brain mythology,' where common psychological phenomena are restated in the language of anatomy without sufficient scientific basis.
Modern neuroscience is increasingly validating the idea that psychological functioning can alter brain functioning, a reversal of Freud's early doctrine that brain causes mind.
Freud’s lasting legacy includes the discovery of the language of neurotic symptoms, the dynamics of repression, and the role of metaphor in dreams and delusions.

The amount of genuine brain science in the Project is small compared to the preponderance of brain mythology, that is, a restatement of common psychological phenomena, such as thought, perception, memory, dreaming, and speech, in the language of brain anatomy and physiology.

Freud's Psychological Sovereignty

The text outlines the transition from the Breuer-Freud cathartic method to the psychoanalytic method based on dream psychology and free association.
Freud's 'Project' is characterized as a multifaceted work that transcends its initial reductionist and biological manifesto.
While medical training emphasized the biological body and sexual needs, Freud's methodology ultimately prioritized psychology as the primary lens of inquiry.
The author aligns with scholars like Sulloway and Forrest in viewing Freud's early work as more than a mere physiological exercise.
Freud is described as remaining a 'slave' to psychology, which he regarded as the 'Queen of the Sciences' in the spirit of Nietzsche.

In his psychoanalytic methodology he remained a slave to his tyrant psychology, in Nietzsche’s phrase, the Queen of the Sciences.

Psychoanalytic and Neurological Bibliography

The bibliography highlights Sigmund Freud's foundational transition from neurological research to the development of psychoanalysis.
A significant portion of the references focuses on the historical and methodological debates surrounding Freud's theories, including critiques from 'Freud bashers.'
The list includes collaborative works with Josef Breuer, marking the early clinical investigations into the psychical mechanisms of hysteria.
Zvi Lothane's extensive contributions explore the intersection of trauma, hallucinations, and the interpersonal dynamics of the psychoanalytic method.
The sources bridge the gap between biological psychiatry and the psychological interpretation of the soul and mind.

LOTHANE , Z. (1996). Psychoanalytic method and mischief of Freud bashers.